The South East Asian Review

Abstract
A hoard of any kind always reveals new economic or socio-political information about a particular place or its surrounding regions. The cowrie hoard discovered at Sri Sri Bhogpur Satra in November 2023 also opened and added an interesting chapter in Assam’s history. This is the first time the cowries found therein were properly identified and linked to import items from the Maldives. While dating the hoard, the authors claimed that it was from the late medieval period and a link with Burmese invasions cannot be overruled.

Authors:
S.K. Bose: BF-70, Sector 1, Salt Lake City, Kolkata, West Bengal.
Guna Gobinda Phukan: Solal, P. O. Panigaon, Lakhimpur, Assam
 

Abstract
Ladakh, a high altitude region, offers a unique blend of geography, culture and spirituality characterised by its location at the crossroads of several major regions nestled between the towering Himalayas and the Karakoram Range forms the top most part of the Indian subcontinent, bordering with Pakistan and China, and on the western edge of the Tibetan plateau. For some, it is part of the southern border of Central Asia, traditionally divided into Western Central Asia (including today’s Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) and Eastern Central Asia (today’s Chinese province of Xinjiang). For others, it is the northern frontier of South Asia and the Indian subcontinent, home to Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Historically significant as a key route for the spread of Buddhism, it served as a passageway for traders, monks and travellers passing between India and Central Asia. They used the caravan routes not only for trade but also for the dissemination of Buddhist teachings, making it an important hub for cultural exchange. The movement of goods along these trade routes facilitated interaction across spiritual boundaries and enabled traders, travellers and scholars to exchange stories, texts and philosophies.

Author:
Sonam Spalzin: Assistant Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Mini Circle Leh, UT Ladakh
 

Abstract
Ethnic communities represent a valuable aspect of intangible heritage, diligently preserving and safeguarding their age-old tradition. Despite the pervasive influence of globalisation, certain communities have successfully retained essential elements of their enduring structures and beliefs. Dima Hasao, earlier known as North Cachar Hill district, situated in southern Assam between the hills of Meghalaya and Nagaland, stands as the cradle of Northeast India’s ancient civilisation. Within this region, diverse ethnic groups thrive, each characterised by distinct languages, cultures, etiquettes, and customs, maintaining their unique identities with minimal external influence. Predominantly comprising the Indo-Mongoloid lineage, these communities primarily inhabit hilly and forested terrains,adhering to traditional ways of life. This research endeavours to delve into the traditional lifestyles of the Dimasa and Zemi Naga tribes inhabiting the North Cachar hills, with a particular emphasis on their practices related to hunting and pastoralism, which exhibit vestiges of early sedentary living. The set of evidence has been collected from field visit and interviews with the village headmen. Documentation of material culture has been accomplished through photography. This documentation is of utmost significance, given the impending risk of these ethnic communities’ vanishing existence. Such documentatio will be helpful, particularly for anthropological and archaeological research in future.

Author:
Nisha Rani Das: Assistant Professor, Department of History, Majuli University of Culture, Assam
 

Abstract
Don Juan Alvear, former director of the Burgos Institute during the Philippine-American war, and founder of Unión Espiritista Cristiana de Filipinas, was born in 1864 in San Fabian,Pangasinan and studied for his Bachelor of Arts degree at the Colegio de San Juan de Letrán and Universidad de Santo Tomás becoming a professor of secondary education upon his graduation. After his brief stint as director of the institute, he became municipal president of San Fabian under American rule and later founded the spiritist association in the country. In 1907 he was elected assemblyman in the Philippine assembly. This article examines Alvear’s legislative career in that august chamber.

Author:
Erwin S. Fernandez: Universidad de Salamanca
 

Abstract
The iconographic representations of the ancient art and sculptures in Goalpara in Assam exhibit a great variety. They also represent different religions and cultural traits. The newly discovered sites have several structural remains, sculptures of different types, decorative bricks and terracotta, caves and stūpa. The new sites mainly contain relics of Brahmannical Hinduism and a few that of Buddhism. The votive stūpas present in Surya Pahar, Pancharatna and stūpa remains found in Barbhita suggest the practice of Buddhism in Assam. Stylistically these stūpas which are carved in monolithic rocks dates back to the first century BCE and continued thereafter. It is noteworthy that remains of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism contemporaneously, have been so far reported only in Goalpara district of Assam. Rock-cut remains of Goalpara region have a unique position in the history of art and architecture of the region. These rock-cut structures provide a little information about the development of artistic activity region and offer glimpses, though not a complete picture of the socio-religious history of the region. Further there is a gap between the archaeological remains of Goalpara and the existing literary traditions. Sculptural and iconographic representation in the region is very unique as it has witnessed earliest sculptural activity in the region along with Da Parvatia in Tezpur. So, one can find both the classical representation and the development of local school in sculptural art of Goalpara. Viṣnu image from Dudhnoi, can be placed to Gupta period but afterward the classical dynamism lost and replaced by Kāmārūpa School of Art or EISMA.

Author:
Sofiul Islam Khan: Assistant Professor and HoD, Department of History, Paschim Guwahati Mahavidyalaya, Guwahati
 

Abstract
This paper explores sustainable heritage conservation through community engagement in Vietnam and Indonesia, emphasising heritage as a vital resource for humanity and a driver of sustainable development. It examines key challenges, including globalisation, inadequate stakeholder collaboration, and the need to balance physical and intangible heritage preservation. Case studies, such as Borobudur temple in Indonesia and Cham sacred sites in Vietnam, highlight the role of community-based tourism and participatory frameworks like the Ha Long Eco-Museum in harmonising cultural preservation with socio-economic development.
    The findings underscore the importance of empowering local communities as custodians, fostering ownership, and integrating traditional knowledge with modern conservation practices. By aligning conservation with intergenerational equity and sustainable tourism, heritage sites can serve as living resources that bridge history and contemporary relevance. The study concludes that inclusive, community-driven approaches are essential for preserving cultural heritage, promoting economic resilience, and achieving global harmony.

Author:
Elora Tribedy: Assistant Professor, School of Historical Studies, Nalanda University, India
 

Abstract
The paper is based on a comparative study carried out for the sites of Kaothe and Daimabad. The study focused on drawing cultural similarities and differences as both the sites exhibit divergent evidence in terms of dwelling structures and their relationship with late Harappan. Ceramics, being the most distinguishing factor of this culture, has been considered as the main unit of analysis for the present research accompanied by other aspects of the economy, society, and land use patterns. The comparative study was done using results obtained from laboratory analysis and published readings. The study has brought about an understanding of the characteristics of Savalda ware and the regional variations that prevailed among the two sites. It was noticed that certain differences in ceramic wares were associated with technological choices, social organisation, local environment, and cultural interactions.

Author:
Jyotshna Rani Khundrakpam: Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian Culture, Tripura University, Agartala
 

Abstract
During ancient times, Mother Goddesses were conceived as provider and protector of humankind so was the Mother Goddess Earth in her multifarious roles. The bounties of earth manifested as flora and fauna, providing the earthlings with food, medicines and wealth was topped by her being conceived as Goddess of maternal sustenance and fertility and protector against various malicious forces. The many naked images of the Goddess lustrated by elephants as well as those portrayed with array of weapons around the headgear, lions flanking her represent her power due to which Mara had to flee as at Sanchi, wherein she is often shown naked in the middle like in many other sites as well as in ring-stones. As varied as her roles are, almost as many are the depiction of associated paraphernalia she is often shown with: lotus (es), vase, kurma, vase holding attendants on makara, nagas bearing treasure vases, multi-hooded naga over her head, array of weapons, lions flanking her, abhayamudra showing her power to protect, varadamudra her power to bestow wealth, elephants below her kurmasana, lustrating elephants. The present endeavour traces the continuity of elements from early Buddhists sites of the elephants representing the clouds drenching the earth, holding lotuses, flanked by lions, kurma at the bottom, and show the similarity of the images of the Goddess with lotus (es) vase, abhayamudra and varadamudra and kurma depicted on the pedestals of Vishnu and his avataras from Khajuraho. On the basis of the above evidences and concurrences from literature it has been suggested that many of the images which are identified as Lakshmi or Gajalakshmi, especially in the early times, particularly in Buddhist context are in fact Bhudevi or Gajabhudevi, which may have very well continued into the medieva depictions, which has to be ascertained on the basis of the affiliation of the site or shrine as the case may be. The transition of the imagery of Bhudevi to be assimilated and represented as that of Lakshmi did not take place before the Gupta period and that too even afterwards is not applicable as a universal phenomenon.

Authors:
J. Manuel: Senior Research Fellow, Dr. V.S. Wakankar Archaeological Research Institute, Bhopal.
T.R. Sharma: Joint Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, 24 Tilak Marg, New Delhi.
K.K. Verma: Deputy Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Jabalpur Circle, Jabalpur & Curator (i/c), ASI Museum, Khajuraho.
 

Abstract
Cultural heritage are the pride of every nation, every people and they are non-renewable resources having outstanding universal value. They belong to the world and today they are an integral part of the urbanised cities. Many of the cultural heritage sites are facing serious threats from climate change leading to irreparable damage because they are old and fragile. Cultural heritage resources are identity markers and they are central to the development of a city and its future growth. Culture is an essential component of a safe, resilient and sustainable urban settlement which is desired by all.
    Taking examples from the Assam Type houses spread across Uzanbazar and Panbazar areas of Guwahati in Assam in India, which are considered to be the heart of the city, the paper attempts to study about the creation of urban resilience from cultural heritage and traditional knowledge point of view. The Assam Type houses which came into existence from 1897 after the Great Assam Earthquake are considered to be identity markers of the state of Assam. Materials found in the midst of nature are used to build these houses. Besides being elegant, these Assam Type houses are light in weight and have been designed in such a way so that they can withstand the tremor in case of an earthquake as Assam is situated in a seismically sensitive area. These houses are no longer built now a days. Guwahati is a growing metropolis today with steel and glass houses which has changed the look of the landscape. However, it is felt that for those Assam Type houses which continue to exist, their preservation amidst the global vertical and horizontal growth of the city is essential for the promotion of cultural expression and ensuring liveability in the cities besides giving cities a vibrant life.

Author:
Madhuri Saikia: Associate Professor, Department of History, Dakshin Kamrup College, Mirza, Assam
 

Abstract
This article is based of a detailed study on the socio-economic aspects of Sattras in Assam. Other than revenue system, these Sattras have income generating sources like masks, manuscripts, handcrafts, incense sticks, pottery, metallurgical industries etc. The Sattras are situated in the isle of Majuli in Assam, which is known to be the largest inhabited fresh water river island in the world. Set amidst the mighty Brahmaputra, the only mythical male river, Majuli enjoys the status of a peerless bio-diversity hotspot. The word ‘Sattra’ has its origin in Rigveda and it is significant that being a Vedic word it has been in extensive use in religious scriptures, Sanskrit literature and in other regional literature till today. The Sattra institution of Assam is a hallmark of the religio-cultural resurgence brought about by the Bhakti movement in Assam during the 15th-16th century.

Author:
Dipannita Das: PhD Research Scholar, Monad University, Hapur, Uttar Pradesh
 

Abstract
Svetadvipa, literally meaning "White Island" is a notion from Vedic cosmology, referring to a transcendental island in the Milk Ocean where Lord Vishnu sits. This paper outlines an ocean-like vast water body — the West Baray — considered to the abode of Vishnu,constructed in the 11th century AD in Angkor in Cambodia. While citing the inscriptional evidences from Preah Khan, an attempt has been made to highlight the significance of the West Baray in the context of Angkor.

Author:
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya
Former National Professor of Epigraphy, Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India
 

Abstract
The spadework in the southern side of the pyramidal structure locally known as Bhim-Gada in Ahichchhatra archaeological site revealed some significant terracotta plaques and other associated artifacts belonging to the pre-Gupta period to 12th century CE. These findings show uniqueness in the art tradition of Ahichchhatra and have not been documented in the site and its neighbouring areas so far. A terracotta plaque depicts the narrative scene of Trideva along with Rishi gana and stylistically resembles with the sculptural art of Gandhara region. The physical features resembling with the Yaksha figurines generally seen in the Indo-Greek art dated to the early Common Era have been described along with other findings in this paper.

Authors:
Dibishada Brajasundar Garnayak: Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Puri Circle, Odisha.
Vivek K. Singh: Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Meerut Circle, Uttar Pradesh.
Mukesh Kumar: Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Meerut Circle, Uttar Pradesh.
Rajesh K. Meena: Conservation Assistant, Archaeological Survey of India, Meerut Circle, Uttar Pradesh.
 

Author:
Lupamudra Saikia: PhD Research Student, Department of Archaeology, Cotton University, Guwahati

Abstract
The present article is an attempt to understand the historical and cultural linkages of North East India and South East Asia, perceived in the light of its connections as well as diversities. Based on literary as well as archaeological evidence the paper examines the close cultural interactions and exchanges between these regions since the distant past and which has shaped much of the histories of this part of Asia. Despite the present containment drawn by political boundaries, notions of shared history and regional interconnectedness between the regions since the very early days may be evidenced by the prehistoric commonalities, ethnic and linguistic affinities, similarities in religious beliefs and practices, art and architecture, material culture, migration routes and settlements.

Authors
Nani G. Mahanta : Director, Centre for South East Asian Studies, Gauhati University & Former Advisor, Education Department, Government of Assam
Mrigakhee Saikia : Assistant Professor, Department of History, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya Adarsha Mahavidyalaya, Behali
 

Abstract
The Ambubashi mela is the celebration of the menstruating goddess in the Kāmākhyā temple on the Nilachala hills. Along with its ethnological importance in the contemporary times, the mela plays an instrumental role in understanding the history of Kāmākhyā tradition, its myths and its institutionalisation. Characterised by an intricate web of yoni worship, vrata and the concept of tirtha, an in-depth analysis of this mela shows the dynamics and the stimuli that lead to the evolution of a tradition. This article aims to analysing these dynamic historical strains both in terms of the scared and the secular paradigm.

Author :
Sneha Das : Independent Researcher, Kharghuli, Barowari, Guwahati, Assam
 

Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to study the prehistoric sites from different parts of Thailand, especially the Hoabinhian sites. It can help young researchers to understand the previous works, including the exploration and excavation of cultural remains. The geology and the Quaternary deposits can explain the archaeological record and must be well understood in relation to the sites of these regions. This review will help to establish the technical evolutionary trends and relationship between all techniques, used at that time in these sites in Thailand and Southeast Asia. Therefore, an attempt has been made to summarize the important prehistoric sites, apparently related with the Hoabinhian that have been excavated in Thailand. It starts from the older dates in the late Pleistocene and extends to the Holocene period of each region in Thailand.
 

Author :
Thanon Chitkament : 47 Bis rue de Maine, 72200, Bazouges-sur-le-Loir, France
 

Abstract
Arunachal Pradesh, situated in north-eastern India, is a landlocked state with a predominantly agrarian economy. It boasts a population of over 1.3 million people, representing a rich tapestry of hundreds of distinct tribes. Arunachal Pradesh holds the distinction of being the largest state in Northeast India. The linguistic diversity in Arunachal Pradesh reflects its cultural richness, with languages primarily stemming from the Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, and Austro-Asiatic language families. This linguistic diversity is a testament to the state’s multiculturalism. This state shares its international borders with three countries: Bhutan to the west (covering a span of 160 km), Myanmar to the east (stretching for 520 km), and China to the north (extending over 1129 km). These international borders underscore the geopolitical significance of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Pradesh has played a pivotal role in connecting India with Southeast Asia, particularly through the spread of Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism was introduced to Arunachal Pradesh from Tibet and the Pala kingdom in Bengal. Over the centuries, various Southeast Asian Buddhist missions ventured into the region, promoting Theravada Buddhism. Notably, the Changlang and Namsai districts house the majority of Theravada art, architecture, and monasteries in the state. Local communities in these districts worship a variety of Theravada deities, including Mucalinda (the serpent king, protector of Buddha), Vasundhara (the earth goddess), Upagupta (a powerful saint), and Sivali (the patron saint of travel). This deep-rooted connection with Buddhism positions Arunachal Pradesh as a cultural bridge between India and Southeast Asia. In the broader context of India’s Act East Policy, Arunachal Pradesh assumes a vital role by fostering physical connectivity, engaging in cultural diplomacy, and promoting cross-border trade. These efforts facilitate people-to-people relations, which hold the potential to address security and geostrategic challenges through a grassroots approach. This paper seeks to delve into the soft power dimensions of India’s Act East Policy, emphasising the unique position of Arunachal Pradesh and its distinct characteristics. This perspective offers an alternative lens through which to view the state, moving beyond the predominant security discourse in Indian policy circles. Additionally, it aligns with the elevated ASEAN-India diplomatic relationship, now designated as the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.

Author :
Sampa Kundu : Consultant, ASEAN-India Centre, Research and Information System for Developing Countries, New Delhi
 

Abstract
Human beings are social by nature. The life of the people, their traditions, customs, language, culture, social life all bears testimony to the fact that they share common roots. Myanmar and India, sharing a border have witnessed the movement of people with regards to socio-economic factors since time immemorial. The hill ranges dividing Myanmar and Northeast India have not proved a deterrent to the flow of people and along with them their culture from either direction. Indian culture had seeped into Myanmar and vice versa. In this paper, an attempt to look into the religious and ethnic ties that exist between the peoples of Myanmar and India, with particular focus on the Shans of Myanmar and the Tais of Northeast India has been made.

Author :
Ye Lon Buragohain : Principal, Siddhartha Play & Learn 2, Kailash Bhawan, Kanaklata Saikia Path, Bhetapara, Guwahati, Assam
 

Abstract
In the twentieth century, discussion about the relation between India and Southeast Asia and consequent Indian impact over the latter became an important part of the subject called ‘Greater India’. This thematic approach involved various genres of literary attributes which played an important role to highlight on India’s cultural influence in the Southeast Asian nations. Books and articles written by the famous Greater India scholars formed a significant part of this historiography. Along with this, travel narratives recorded by the individual travellers were also important source of relevant discussion as these documented authors’ own experiences. Among such travelogues, Sadanand Swami’s records demand attention. These reflect views of an Indian monk who did not have any direct connection with the institutional research of Greater India yet offered in-depth introspection of various aspects of Indian influence existed in the Southeast Asian regions. In this article, I have tried to give an idea how this undiscussed travel story can be used as a source of history regarding the relation between India and Southeast Asia.

Author :
Debarati Ganguly : Assistant Professor, Postgraduate Department of History, St. Xavier’s College (autonomous), Kolkata
 

Abstract
Orality would imply passing on ideas, thoughts, practices and tales from a generation to another for at least more than one generation, as Jan Vansina writes in his classic, Oral Tradition as History. Societies across the world and especially in the north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent have had a ‘rich’ tradition of orality, represented both in the social fabric through traditions like Ojapali which can be said to be a derivative of the Kathakata tradition practiced in Karnataka and other areas, as well as through texts like Keli Gopal or others written by Srimanta Sankardeva in the Assamese context being enacted as plays or popularised among the people through various audio-visual means, becoming very much an intrinsic part of the life and identity of the community. Sankardeva was influenced to a great extent by the Ojapali tradition, and introduced a practice known as the Sattriya Ojapali that represents a beautiful synthesis between orality and the ‘text’, also replete in the tradition of Ankiya Bhaona. The text here represents a symbol, rather than solely a literary tool of expression – a symbol encompassing ideas and thoughts in a larger paradigmatic realm.
Krishna Bhakti in Assam has a tradition of its own which is different and distinct from the other forms of worship in the religious sphere of the Assamese community. Significant is the various social implications, Krishna Bhakti holds in terms of being an intrinsic part of the socio-religious life of the community, portrayed vividly in oral traditions, tales and lore also subtly and sometimes directly extending to the political arena, as was seen in the Moamaria uprising which was led by a section of the descendants of the Vaishnava or Krishna Bhakti, who were followers of Gopal Deva or Gopal Ata. This and other dynamics led to far reaching consequences, ultimately however elevating Krishna worship as one of the most significant aspects of the society in the area which is otherwise regarded as a ‘Tantric hotbed’. This paper would look into the various aspects and the changing dynamics of Krishna Bhakti in Assam preached by Srimanta Sankardeva through orality, text and identity, all of them, being inextricably woven into a matrix of the very life and soul of the society.

Author :
Swaswati Borkataki : PhD Research Scholar, Special Centre for the Study of North East India Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
 

Abstract
This study examines the multifaceted aspects of community engagement in the context of creative tourism development, focusing on museums and local communities in the Bang Lamphu area. The research employs a mixed-method approach, incorporating indepth interviews with museum decision-makers and community leaders, as well as focus group discussions involving community representatives. Additionally, it explores the instrumental role of youth groups, particularly the ‘Gesorn Lum Poo Club,’ in facilitating community-based tourism activities. The findings of this study reveal several critical factors that influence community participation in creative tourism initiatives. These factors encompass a strong sense of local pride, a commitment to heritage preservation, and the catalytic involvement of government agencies, particularly the Department of Fine Arts. Moreover, the research unveils a rich tapestry of cultural assets within the community, such as traditional Thai music, crafts, and gold-smithing, all of which contribute to the area’s appeal as a cultural destination.
The study underscores the pivotal role of youth engagement in tourism development, exemplified by the ‘Gesorn Lum Poo Club’. This youth group emerged as a dynamic force in educating its members about local history and heritage, eventually leading to the establishment of Sanaebanglumphu Co. Ltd. The organisation successfully brought together youth from diverse backgrounds to actively participate in community-based tourism, acting as interpreters and facilitators for tourists. In summary, this research provides valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of community engagement in creative tourism development. It highlights the significance of cultural assets, government support, and youth involvement as key drivers in fostering sustainable and authentic cultural tourism experiences. These findings have broader implications for the promotion of community-based tourism and its benefits to both local communities and tourists seeking genuine cultural encounters.

Authors :

Doungrak Chantang : Researcher, Professional Level, Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University
Khunyarin Chaijan : Researcher, Senior Professional Level, Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University
 

Abstract
The production and perpetuation of the colonial empire have had lasting effects on the colonised. The state of most developing nations as they are today can be traced back to their colonial roots. In this paper, we present evidence showing that colonial empires were based on a relationship of extraction from the colonies. We also show the nature and means of that extraction in Bengal, now Bangladesh. The nature of that extractive relationship and its unintended consequences led to the development of certain types of institutions that created the poverty of initial conditions.
 

Author :
Bobby Hajjaj : Department of Management, North South University, Bashundara, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
 

Abstract
India is the largest democracy of the world. Academics have conducted serious research on the elements of social and political thinking in ancient India which lead to encourage more rigorous research in ancient Indian texts exploring democratic ideas. India is being considered as the Mother of Democracy by scholars based on extensive works on public policy formulation, taxation, statecraft, governance, welfare, administration, etc. This paper examines the sphere of public governance in ancient India with an emphasis on Yogakshema concept in works of Kalidasa.

Authors :
Sanjeev Kumar Sharma : Former Vice Chancellor, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari (Bihar), General Secretary and Treasurer, Indian Political Science Association (IPSA), Professor of Political Science, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut
Ansuiya Nain : Assistant Professor, Department of International Relations, Central University of Kerala, Capital Centre, Thiruvanthapuram, Kerala
 

Abstract
This research provides the necessary information on tourist needs in the top ten tourist destinations for international students to travel in the future. The study driver focused on the motivation to travel, travel behaviour to achieve intermediate results in evaluating the potential attractiveness of tourism, the value of the tourist attraction, the potential for tourism development and management. The results show that Thailand’s educational tourism was also suitable for nature, tourism, historical tourism, and cultural tourism. International students were more likely to appreciate the museum, historic sites, festival/tradition, and the way of life of the community, arts, and cultural centre. Assessment of educational tourism potential also pointed out that Chiang Mai, Surat Thani, Mae Hong Son, and Phuket were the high potential destinations for educational tourism. Those provinces are rich in natural tourism resources and historical tourism, and cultural resources.

Authors :
Khunyarin Chaijan : Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University Bangkok 10200, Thailand
Sitthisak Moukomla : Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (Public Organization), Bangkok 10210, Thailand
 

Abstract
Neak Ta is a Khmer folk religion intimately linked to the natural environment, agricultural land, and habitation regions in Southern Vietnam. The Khmer have traditionally venerated Neak Ta using sacred stones discovered in the natural environment, according to long-established customs. However, the Neak Ta religion has seen significant modifications during the 1990s. The Khmer have constructed humanoid forms called Neak Ta out of these amorphous stones in an attempt to resurrect the ancient images of Brahminism. The article is based on the author’s fieldwork in the provinces of Tra Vinh and Binh Phuoc during 10th to 30th March, 2021. In this article, the author examined the transformation process of Neak Ta belief and analysed the origins and implications of the symbolic Neak Ta in contemporary Khmer social interactions.
 

Author :
Phan Anh Tú : Faculty of Cultural Studies, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University Hochiminh City

Abstract 
Musical instruments are important repositories of heritage depending upon tangible materials, available in each environment, the instrument’s role in each culture, and the living/intangible traditions of cultural transmission. In Assam, the dotara is central to the Zikir songs of Sufi Saint Hazrat Shah Miran or Ajan Fakir, multiple regional folk genres, and Dehbisaror geet (philosophical/mystical songs) prevalent in upper and lower Assam. The prominence of the dotara throughout Central Asia and into the former Ottoman Empire and Andalusia indicates that this instrument was transported or shared along the ancient Silk Road. However, in terms of the instrument construction and playing techniques, the Kyrgis komuz or dumbora bears the most salient symmetry with the Assamese dotara, including tuning, use of the plectrum, and functions within its cultural milieu. Assam was important to Silk Road from ancient times (200-300 BCE) and most likely silk came to India from China. The Brahmaputra River served as the main artery between China and the west to India. Cultural interchange between Assam and China is strongly supported by Hiuen Tsang’s discussion of a Chinese song that became popular in Assam as early at 636 CE. Historical evidence for the dotara’s development will be examined, and comparisons between performance styles and organology. The role of the kingdoms of Assam as a bridge between India and China is not generally known, but potentially this will become a rich vein for future research.

Authors :
Utpola Borah : Ethnomusicologist, Cultural Archivist and Indian Classical Vocalist, Ohio, USA
Hans F Utter :  Ethnomusicologist, Cultural Archivist, Musician and Producer, Ohio, USA
 

Author :
Soma Sahai-Srivastava : Clinical Professor of Neurology, Department of Neurology Keck Medical Center of USC, Los Angeles
 

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Author :
Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai
Bualuang ASEAN Chair Professor Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisor to Apsara Authority, Siem Riep, Cambodia
Former Chair, Department Ancient Indian and Asian Studies
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Former National Professor of Epigraphy,
Institute of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India

Abstract
The pre-agricultural phase represents a brief span of a few thousand years between the Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic stages and can be taken as a transitory phase from a food-gathering to a food-producing society. Widespread use of microliths and regular use of the bow and arrow indicate more intensive exploitation of natural resources of localised ecological niches, a subsistence based on hunting, gathering and fishing. On the other hand, the Neolithic, Metal age, and chronologically later sites which flourished in Thailand after c. 5000 BCE marks the beginning of sedentism. For these societies, subsistence was primarily based on agriculture, supplemented by stock-raising and hunting-fishing. The food economy was based on a combination of agricultural products and aquatic and land-animal food including both domestic and wild. The change from nomadic hunting-gathering to settled or semi-settled agriculture and/or pastoral lifeways was a major cultural change observed by human societies after the Neolithic transition. Human morphology especially cranio-facial, responded to this cultural change and the human skeletal remains recovered from this time frame are worth studying to examine bodily impact of the cultural change. In addition, higher morbidity in the settled early farming communities might also have contributed to the comparatively delicate built. This hypothesis has been successfully tested for sites in the Indian sub-continent. In future such parallel attempt is worth trying in Thailand. In the larger interest it would be beneficial to judge the importance of Thailand prehistoric skeletal features in prospective evolutionary studies by observing the microevolutionary trends in cranio-facial and post-cranial evolution that are accepted on global scale.    

Authors : 
Worrawit Boonthai
Laboratory of Physical Anthropology and Ethnology,
Faculty of Sociology and Anthropology Thammasat University,
Thailand

Subhash R. Walimbe
Department of Anthropology
University of Pune
Pune, India 

Abstract
The Neolithic Site of Letpanchaypaw is located between Bagan World Heritage Site and Pakokku town and on the left bank of Ayeyarwaddy River in Central Myanmar. It is located west of the Badahlin cave site producing early Neolithic industry and is also located between Hanlan Pyu ancient city in North and Beikthano and Sriksetra Pyu ancient cities in the South. These Pyu urban cities are of the early Iron Age and the first urban state in Myanmar. According to cultural evidence in Letpanchaypaw, the people from there are related to trade exchange with some Neolithic sites north of this site and Hanlin Neolithic-early Iron industrial site in the north. According to the cultural layer, there are more than three occupation layers and the lowest layer is related to the early Neolithic and the other two are related to the late Neolithic period.

Authors:
Kyaw Khaing
Department of Archaeology and National Museum, Yangon, Myanmar

Aung Ko Latt
Department of Archaeology and National Museum, Yangon, Myanmar

Kaung Si Thu
Department of Archaeology and National Museum, Yangon, Myanmar

Kyaw Myo Satt
Department of Archaeology, University of Yangon, Myanmar

Tin Htut Aung
Department of Archaeology, University of Yangon, Myanmar

Zaw Phyo
Department of Archaeology, University of Yangon, Myanmar

Abstract
Classification of megalithic remains in Myanmar relies upon establishing a firm chronology for the Late Holocene of Neolithic to Early Historic periods. This paper focuses on defining phases within the Chalcolithic to Neolithic, dating to circa the first millennium BCE. The paper opens with a summary of the history and chronology on this era followed by descriptions of the relevant Chalcolithic and Neolithic sites and a typology of menhirs. The next section of the paper discusses the megalithic remains at known sites. The paper concludes with a discussion of the northern and southern Chin areas adjacent to Manipur where megaliths continue to be used to this day. These suggest links and possibly cultural diffusion from the Northeastern India to Myanmar.

Author:
Win Kyaing
Director and Principal Field School of Archaeology (Pyay)

Abstract
This paper is an endeavour to show how Indian influences in numerous forms can be easily observed upon the culture of ancient Thailand, both social and material, within an archaeological context. It is surmised that Hinduism reached Southern Thailand owing to Indian merchants around the 5th century CE, and spread to Nakhon Si Thammarat, which became a flourishing religious centre. The ancient art objects such as icons and sculptures, epigraphs, monuments, besides coins and seals have been found dated to around the 7th - 13th century CE, which indicate the chronology of Hinduism in that period. Therefore, this work is an attempt to discuss the correlations between different aspects of objects, discovered in Thailand, mainly in Nakhon Si Thammarat province showing the nature of impact to understand the interaction between India and southern Thailand in terms of economy and trade, religion, society and culture.

Author:
Thanon Chitkament
47 Bis rue de Maine, 72200, Bazouges-sur-le-Loir, France

Authors :
Abira Bhattacharya
Assistant Curator (Department of Anthropology),
National Museum, Janpath, New Delhi and
PhD Research Scholar,
Department of History of Art,
National Museum Institute (NMI), Janpath, New Delhi

Author:
Chedha Tingsanchali
Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
 

Author :
Sama Haq
Consultant (Central Asian Antiquities) National Museum, New Delhi

Abstract
The importance of Naga art has two aspects; firstly, in terms of the research value, Naga is an important design element in Buddhist temples in Thailand. It is particularly seen in architectural decoration and ornaments, yet little research has been done on Naga. Secondly, Naga art of Northern Thailand also has local characteristics. Buddhist temples are important places for observing Buddhist art. Chiang Mai was the capital of the Lanna Kingdom from the 13th century CE; accordingly, there are important Buddhist temples in abundance in the old town. In other words, the Buddhist temples in Chiang Mai are significant representative of Lanna culture. This study involved field research, recording Naga arts in 34 Buddhist temples of the Mueang Chiang Mai District, aimed to explore the characteristics of Naga art in Northern Thailand. The results of this research show that the Naga art of Northern Thailand has local characteristics, as revealed by their motifs, shapes, patterns, and so on.

Author :
Ya-Liang Chang
Associate Professor,
College of Fine Arts,
Huanggang Normal University,
China

Author :
Shrutashwinee Gogoi
Assistant Professor,
Department of Philosophy Moran College,
Charaideo, Assam.

Authors
Nyoman Sedana
Director of Bali Module and PEPADI, Bali
Indonesian Arts Institute (ISI), Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia

Made Sidia
Wayang Puppeteer and Trainer, Bali, Indonesia